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For sometime I have been defeated in identifying a sheet from the Malay Peninsula with decussate, pinnate, exstipular leaves and choripetalous, 5-merous, male flowers. It would seem that the choice was so much narrowed by these characters, that identification would have been easy. And though it is now certain, that it belongs to Phellodendron of the Rutaceae, it remains still remarkable that the leaves of this genus do not show the distinct pellucid glands which are so typical for rutaceous plants. There are indeed minute, pin-like pellucid glands (crystal cells?) in the parenchyma but of essentially smaller size than is usual in Rutaceae. It is true that Sprague (Kew Bull. 1920, 231) and Engler (Pfl. Fam. ed. 2, 19a 1931, 298) mention the occurrence of a large pellucid gland near each of the shallow leaf-crenations, but this appears to be frequently indistinct in the sheets of the genus preserved in the Rijksherbarium. See also Blenk, Flora 67 (1884) 278.

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In recent works on the classification of Ficus insufficient attention has been given to the names of subdivisions made by Miquel. These must be typified and re-introduced with minimum of disturbance, but a pre-requisite is a full understanding of all his species. The last to attempt this was King (1887 - 88), and he was obliged to leave many uncertain. Since 1950 I have worked on the revision of the Asiatic and Australasian species, using the large collection of the Singapore Herbarium as the study-collection, and, with the indispensable assistance of the herbaria of Leiden, Utrecht, Bogor, and Kew (for many of Miquel's types are in the Hooker Herbarium).  I have succeeded in recognising every taxon described by Miquel from forma to genus.  This series of papers gives the bare taxonomic results: botanical appreciation must await full publication. I should add that, until one can identify leaves in particular from microscopic structure, it is commonly impossible to identify many types. Hence I acknowledge with gratitude my apprenticeship through the Singapore Herbarium and my progress through the courtesy of the Directors and staff of the herbaria of Europe, Asia, New Guinea, and Australia, namely of the British Museum, Kew, Edinburgh, Paris, Florence, Leiden, Utrecht, Copenhagen, Berlin, Calcutta, Bogor, Manila, Lae, Brisbane, and Adelaide.  Thus I have studied over twenty thousand collections, not counting the abundant duplicates.  Further, in special matters, I have received great help from the herbaria of Stockholm. Uppsala, Geneva, Turin, Caen, the Arnold Arboretum, the New York Botanic Garden, and the Smithsonian Instituition. The funds for this work have come mainly from the Leverhulme Trust, the Nuffield Foundation, and the Royal Society. To all these persons and institutions, and to the many field-botanists who have joined the quest, I express my gratitude. Taxonomy, of course, is a mean to an end, and what I have in mind is the evolution to tropical forest as seen through one of its major constituents.          

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These notes are put together from material supplied by the Forest Department of North Borneo and the Forest Research Institute of the Federation of Malaya, and are now published to validate the new species, descriptions of which the authors had left in manuscript.

Obituary

Dedication

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Many people think of botanic gardens as public parks which to stroll amid pleasant surroundings and admire beautiful and rare flowers. Others consider them a convenient excercising ground for the baby or the dog, a good place for picnics, and, in Singapore, somewhere to feed the monkeys.

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It is a pleasing thing that the Botanic Gardens at Singapore and the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew should be celebrating in the same year, the one honouring 100 years of exitence on the present site, the other commemorating the 200th.anniversary of its founding. As we congratulate each other on the happy occasion and wish each other well for the future, it is also fitting that we recall the close bonds which have been woven between Kew and Singapore during their common life.  In order to understand how these bonds came to be fashioned, it may be helpful to retrace some part of the history of the gardens at Kew.

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Natural Rubber production in Malaya and other tropical Asian countries depends upon the cultivation of Hevea brasiliensis. This tree was introduced into the east and its exploitation developed through the agency of various botanical institutions and, as will be shown below, the part played by staff of the Singapore Botanic Gardens has proved exceptionally important. The changing fortunes of the rubber producing industry have reflected the trends of world economic history during the first half of the twentieth century.  Although during times of trade depression the plantation industry has done little more than provide a survival existence for its many employees, on balance natural rubber production has made one of the greatest contributions to prosperity in Malaya. This has been achieved in the first place by the attraction of capital and latterly because the inductry has become the largest single source of employment and revenue in the Federation of Malaya. At present rubber plantation employees number over a quarter of million and it is estimated that nearly 400,000 smallholders are supported wholly or partly by rubber cultivation. Direct taxation of rubber exports has provided about 15 per cent of the total Federal revenue during the last five years.  This figure was swelled by taxes on company profits and by other less direct means. This enterprise, which has given a livelihood to a large section of the population representative of all races in Malaya and provided wealth for the country's development, owes its origin mainly to the Singapore Botanic Gardens.        

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Efforts to learn about plants are called botany, when they are suffciently rational. Efforts to grow plants and make new ones and to destroy the harmful and unwanted are parts of agriculture and sylviculture, when they are sufficiently profitable. Our enjoyment of plants, wild or in the garden, has no name, but it is an aspect of civilisation as essential as art and literature; and horticulture is a sign of progress. Thus, in concourses of men, the academic, the applied, and the recreational sides of plant-lore have developed into the botany schools of universities, the plant-breeding stations of agriculture, the research institutes of forestry, the nature-reserves of wild-life services, the parks and botanical gardens of cities, and the flower-beds, window-boxes, vases, and books of the home.  Wretchedly barren is that community unmindful. In this concrete age, which hardens our lives, we should reflect upon the appeal of kampong, sawa, pasir panjang, gunong hijau, sungei berassau, and kayu chondong. The beauty of Rio de Janeiro, so inspiring to the visitor, is the city in the bay of forested mountains. Seeing then that botany, if we use that word for all ways in which plants enter our lives, is a subject vital to learning, practice, and recreation, let us consider the harder word taxonomy.

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An anomalous aroid was noticed in the collections made three years ago in Sarawak by Mr. J. W. Purseglove, then the Director of the Botanic Gardens, Singapore. It belongs to the group of aroids which shed off the upper portion of the spathes before the fruits are formed on the enclosed spadices. Since the sheaths of the petioles of its leaves are broad and produce long, tongue-shaped free portions, the aroids could be a species of either Piptospatha or Microcasia. In their general appearance and the way they bend, the spathes resemble those of a Piptospatha, and the spadix is fertile up to the apex or with an apex with sterile flowers. But in Purseglove's specimen the male flowers which occupy the upper two-thirds of the spadix have each two horns through apical pores of which pollen is shed; and bicornulate stamens forms a definitive character of a species of Microcasia. Hence the new species is assigned to this genus and named Microcasia purseglovei in honour of the collector. Hitherto only two species of this genus were known M. elliptica and M. pygmaea, both of which had helped to define the genus as having, among other things, a sterile apex to the spadix; but in view of the characters of the new species, the generic definition has to be altered to include also the species with fully fertile spadices. The two earlier described species were very tiny plants; but the new species is a very much larger plant in regard to the vegetative and reproductive parts.

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While arranging the material of the genus Ardisia in the Singapore herbarium, some new species or new records were noticed, while others had to be excluded from the genus. The status of some of these will have ot be settled by comparing the types; but the following notes are published here in order either to clarify some confusions that existed in the herbarium and also in the recently published literature on the subject, or to give a status to some of the names that have been adopted in the Singapore herbarium where the types and other speciemns cited in this paper are preserved. As originally published by Mez, the sections mentioned here were subgenera, but they have been treated as Sections by Merrill and others, an arrangement that seems to be more in accord with the present concepts of nomenclature.    

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In the large genus, Sphagnum, the degree of affinity and variability of the species occurring in South-east Asia has not been fully worked out. Professor Le Roy Andrews has made very valuable investigations and has indicated the synonymy for South and North American species, and has made some reference to species from othjer tropical regions.  Fortunately he was able to examine the types in the Warnstorf Moss Herbarium at Berlin-Dahlem. This herbarium which was entirely destroyed in the last was (Dalby, 1957), included the types described by Warnstorf in Sphagnologia Universalis (1911). In the absence of types for reference, the excellent critical work done by Le Roy Andrews before the destruction of the herbarium must form the basis of present day Sphagnum studies. In this paper an account is given of the Malaysian Sphagnain the herbaria at Bogor, Indonesia, and at Singapore. The classification of the genus in this paper closely follows that of Andrews (1936). A complete synonymy is not given but new synonyms are indicated. Other synonyms can be found in Warnstorf (1911).

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Among the many ecological problems awaiting solution in Singapore Island, is the rapid spread of introduced weeds on soil bared by land utilisation. In recent years Cleomeciliata Schum. et Thonn. has shown wide distribution, occurring as a weed of waste ground, manure heaps and in exposed situations along the drains of roadsides. This plant of tropical African origin (Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1927) is widely distributed both in tropical Africa and Jamaica. It was first collected in Singapore in 1927 and since then has spread rapidly over Singapore Island and is locally abundant in parts of the Federation of Malaya. In this paper some suggestions will made as the reasons for its rapid spread and its successful colonisation of exposed sunny land. Other features of ecological interest will also be mentioned.

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During my stay at Singapore, from 1942 to 1945, it was quite unexpected to find that there were such various growth-forms of trees compared with the temperate region.  In temperate countries deciduous trees are clearly distinguishable from the evergreen, and leaf-fall is in accordance with the winter.  Even a slight fluctuation of chilly weather affects the date of leaf-fall, so that the exacting influence of the climate is conspicuous.  This hold true, also, in the monsoon region with a dry season. In Singapore, most trees are naturally evergreen, and some of them are evergrowing in accordance with the favourable climate, but most of the evergreen are intermittent in their growth and some are even deciduous in spite of so uniform a climate, though the bare spell is very short and the flowering or fruiting may go on during that time. Besides, there are some trees, in which the leafing, flowering, etc. are different according to individual branches or stocks. So we can see among trees every possible transition of growth-form from the evergrowing to the deciduous.  Another peculiarity to be pointed out in Singapore is that the leaf-fall does not coincide with the calender year. Beside those which shed leaves once, twice, or thrice seasonally every year, there are those that shed leaves from every several months to more than one year non-seasonally. Yet there is no exacting change of climate to enforce this leaf-fall, since other trees or even other stocks of the same species remain clad with a green crown. To elucidate why such diverse behaviour of the tree-growth is displayed was the chief aim of the present investigation. The periodicity of tree-growth is a natural consequence of the activity of the growing point. But before discussing the detail, it is necessary first to consider the climatic character of the region. As to general features, one may refer to manuals of climatology and related literature.    

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Among some unidentified sedges from the Malay Peninsula kindly sent to me for identification, I found two sheets of Juncusprismatocarpus R.BR., collected by H. M. BURKILL in the Cameron Highlands. It seems wothwhile to mention these collections in a short note, as up to the present Juncaceae were unknown from the Malay Peninsula.  Juncus primatocarpus extends from Ceylon through S.E. Asia to Japan and Kamtchatka, and southward to Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.  In Malaysia it is known from N. Sumatra, West and Central Java, the Philippines, and New Guinea (see BACKER in Flora Mal. I, 4: 213. 1951).

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There are six species and four varieties in the genus Gymnacranthera. Some taxonomists may prefer to regard the varieties as subspecies since they occupy only certain geographical areas in some reasonable distributional pattern. One of the six species, namely G. farquhariana (Hk. f. et Th.) Warb., synonym G. canarica (King) Warb., is confined to southern India, while the rest are Malaysian. I have already dealt with the Malay Peninsula species in Gardens' Bulletin, Singapore 16 (1958) 434 in which publication will be found descriptions and details of distribution in Malaya. The distribution of these Malayan species outside Malaya is dealt with now in the present paper but descriptions and other details are not repeated. Descriptions, however, are given for the remaining species which do not occur in the Malay Peninsula. Species on loan from a few herbaria were received after my paper "A Revision of the Malayan Myristicaceae" went to the press so these are briefly enumerated in the present account under Malay Peninsula, extra specimens. These herbaria are BO, LE and NSW. Vernacular names given here are those used outside Malaya.  The only common vernacular names for Gymnacranthera in Malaya are pendarah, chendarah, penarah, darahan, chendarahan, pendarahan and penarahan and these are equally applicable to the other genera of the Myristicaceae. It is not necessary therefore, to repeat them under each species. In this paper the following receive new status:- G. crassinervis is reduced to a variety of G. forbesii and G. zippeliana to a variety of G. paniculata. The following are reduced to synonyms of G. paniculata var. paniculata :- G. acuminata and G. macrobotrys, while G. suluensis is made a synonym of G. paniculata var. zippeliana.    

Book Review

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An account is given of 125 species and forms of Eugleninae found in Malaya, of which 11 are described for the first time. The Eugleninae form a very important part of the micro-flora in standing freshwater in Malaya, particularly where there is a great deal of organic decay going on, or where the water harbours an abundant plant-growth. Indeed, they maybe so abundant as to colour the water, for example, the brick red scums so common on Chinese fish-ponds, and on newly flooded rice-fields, are almost entirely due to Euglena sanguinea Ehrenberg. However, despite their abundance, the Eugleninae have been very little studied here, and I have been able to find reference to only three species in all the literature on the Malayan freshwater micro-flora. This is because the amount of algological work which has been done in Malaya has been very limited, and most of it has been carried out on preserved material taken to laboratories elsewhere. The Eugleninae on the hand must be studied in the living, and freshly killed state, if sufficiently accurate identification is to be carried out. The present paper deals with 125 species and forms, of which 11 appear to be new. This is certainly not the total number of species to be found in Malaya, and already one two other forms have turned up, differing from those described in this paper, but which will need further study before they can be adequately identified. Slides of the new species and varieties will be deposited in the Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Singapore. The Eugleninae form a class of flagellates which are highly differentiated, but whose origin are obscure. Characteristically they are naked, without a cellulose cell wall as in the Chlamydomonadaceae of the Chlorophyceae.  The periplast, or bounding membrane of the protoplast may be relatively soft so that the cell may be very metabolic, changing its shape with ease, as in Euglena, or it may be rigid, permitting very little change in shape, as in Phacus. In most cases the periplast is striated, although the striations may be fine or coarse, and in some cases the membrane may be ribbed as well. In Trachelomonas, Strombomonas and Ascoglena, the protoplast is enclosed in a firm envelope, or lorica, usually of very distinctive shape, and the protoplast can often be seen squirming within the envelope. These encapsuled types parallel the occurence of Phacotus in the Chlamydomonadaceae. One genus Colacium, forms attached dendroid colonies, the cells acquiring flagella and leaving the colony only during reproduction. Two species of Euglena also formed attached stages, but they can readily leave the colony, even when not dividing. All the Eugleninae have a large, centrally-placed nucleus, but the most characteristic feature of the class is the vacuolar system. At the anterior end an invagination of the periplast forms a narrow canal, the cytostome, which leads inwards to an enlarged vacuolar swelling, the reservoir.  These are practically always visible, and their presence is indicated by an apical notch, which in some cases may be distinctly one-sided. There may be one or two flagella passing in through the cytostome and terminating at the base of the reservior. In the case of uniflagellate species the single flagellum is forked at the base, where it enters the reservoir, suggesting that biflagellate condition is probably primitive and that the single flagellum has arisen by fusion of two.  (Some authors claim that the flagellar ends extend right down to the nucleus, but evidence on this point is both varied and confusing). In all the Eugleninae the products of assimilation appear as solid, often quite large granules of paramylum, either as rods, discs, rings or other shapes, the shape usually being constant for a particular species. Paramylum is a polysaccharide, allied to starch. but which does not stain with iodine or chlorzinc-iodide, is insoluble in boiling water, but which will dissolve in concentrated sulphuric acid or in potash. The Eugleninae can divided quite naturally into the pigmented forms, comprising the family Euglenaceae, which contain chloroplasts and are usually green in colour, and the colourless forms consisting of the two families Astasiaceae and Peranemaceae.  Cyclidiopsis Korschikow, which is usually separated in the family Cyclidiopsidaceae, is completely devoid of chloroplasts, but possesses a stigma; it shows such close resemblance to species of Euglena that perhaps it ought to be included in the Euglenaceae. Some species of Euglena have been observed to lose their chloroplasts and live saprophytically under special cultural conditions. The Astasiaceae are without stigma (except Khawkinia Jahn & McKibben) and chloroplasts and live saprophytically, but one or two species of Astasia come very close to colourless forms of Euglena. The Peranamaceae are decidedly more specialised, showing a marked tendency towards holozoic nutrition. There is in most cases a special organ, the siphon, which in some cases appears as two short parallel rods next to the cytostome and reservoir. In Entosiphon it forms a cone shaped tube running nearly the full length of the cell, and capable of being extruded (fig. 8k). The function of these structures is still obscure, and they have been variously described as pumping organs, or the means of ingestion of solid particles. For the purpose of identification I have largely depended on the following works:  "Das Phytoplankton des Susswassers" Vol. iv  'Euglenophyceen' by Huber-Pestalozzi 1955, "The genus Euglena" by Gojdics 1953, "Materiaux pour un Monographie de Trachelomonas, Strombomonas et Euglena" by Conrad & van Meel 1952, "Etude systematique du genre Lepocinclis" by Conrad 1935, "Synopsis der gattung Phacus" by Pochmann 1942, and various papers by Deflandre, Skvortzow, Playfair and others. In some genera there has been a tendency for the Malayan specimens to be larger than those elsewhere, whereas in some other genera they have been smaller.  Such size variations, unless they are very marked, are not of great significance, especially when we know so little about nutrition and growth of these organisms. In such cases I have preferred to retain the Malayan specimens under the species name rather than separate them as varieties.                      

Abstract:
The account was originally prepared and drafted at Singapore, but later corrected after a visit to Leiden in April and May 1956, where many valuable Malaysian collections are housed. After seeing these collections and others at Florence, Geneva, Munich, Kew, the British Museum and Edinburgh, the author is firmly convinced that a "regional flora" not only of the Myristicaceae but all of groups cannot be satisfactory, unless the species of the whole adjacent Malaysian region are also examined. Much was learnt about geographical distribution and many species thought to be confined to Malaya were found to occur in Sumatra and Borneo. Several of the specific names in the original draft had to be altered as a result of these visits, some more may yet have to be changed when specimens from the whole Malaysian region are examined carefully. These name changes will affect polymorphic species with a wide distribution range, which have been given many different names throughout the region.  Thus, while realizing that it would have been better to have revised Myristicaceae for the whole of the Malayan region before attempting the local acount, the latter is now published, as the full revision will take some time to prepare.  The family Myristicaceae is a difficult one and many mistakes have been made in identifying species. This is due to the following reasons: The trees are dioecious and female flowers are often scarcer than the male.  The leaves are often similar in form and texture, especially in Myristica, so that one has to be able to correlate male flowers, female flowers and fruit of a single species. The keys are lengthy as there are many species in each genus and if not well constructed, they may be misleading. The brief accounts of the early authors such as Miquel and Roxburgh, founded often on insufficient material, have caused much trouble. The types of the New Guinea material, housed at Berlin, were destroyed by bombs during the war in March 1943. A few duplicates of these types are to be found in Breslau and elsewhere and it is hoped that others can still be located. This deplorable loss makes the work of identifying new material from New Guinea extremely difficult.

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